Английский язык
Шрифт:
Chewing movements of the teeth, tongue, cheeks, lips and lower jaw break down food, mix it with saliva and roll it into a moist, soft mass called a bolus, suitable for swallowing. Having been rendered suitable for swallowing the food is pushed back into the pharynx by the tongue, and enters the esopha gus to be transported rapidly down the neck and thorax, through the diaphragm to the stomach. The mucous membrane of the stomach is equipped with millions of glands secreting mucus, digestive enzymes and hydrochloric acid.
The small intestine is the region within which the process of digestion is completed and its products are absorbed. Although its epithelial lining forms many small glands, they mainly produce mucus. Most of the enzymes present are secreted by the pancreas, whose duct, opens into the duodenum. Bile from the liver also enters the duodenum.
The absorption of the product's of digestion also takes place in the small intestine, although water, salts, and glucose are ab sorbed from the stomach and the large intestine.
The large intestine is chiefly concerned with the preparation, storage and evacuation of undigestible and unabsorbable food residue.
process of digestion –
сhewing – жевание
saliva – слюна
to moisten – увлажнять
enzyme – фермент
carbohydrates – углеводы
stomach – живот
tongue – язык
hydrochloric acid – соляная кислота
absorption – поглощение
45. The digestive system: the function
The digestive system, or gastrointestinal tract, begins with the mouth, where food enters the body, and ends with the anus, where solid waste material leaves the body. The primary function of the organs of the digestive system are threefold.
First, complex food material which is taken into the mouth must be digested mechanically and chemically, as it travels through, the gastrointestinal tract.
Second, the digested food must be absorbed by passage through the walls of the small intestine into the blood stream so that the valuable energy-carrying nutrients can travel to all cells of the body.
The third function of the gastrointestinal tract is to eliminate the solid waste materials which are unable to be absorbed by the small intestine.
In the man the food in the mouth is masticated, that is to say it is bitten and broken up by the teeth and rolled into the bolus by the tongue.
The act of swallowing is divided into three stages
The first stage is under voluntary control. The food which has been transformed into a soft, mass by the act of mastication is brought into position upon the root of the tongue, and by the action of the lingual muscles is rolled backwards towards the base of the tongue.
The second stage is brief and is occupied in guiding the food through the pharynx and past the openings that lead from it. The muscular movements during this stage are purely reflex in nature. The third stage involves the passage of the food down the eso phagus. The food is seized by peristaltic wave which, traveling along the esophagus, carries the material before it into the stomach. The cardiac sphincter which guards the lower end of the esophagus and which at other times is kept tonically closed re laxes upon the approach of the bolus which is then swept into the stomach by the wave of constriction which follows.
Peristalsis is a type of muscular contraction characteristic of the gut and consists in waves of contraction, these running along the muscles, both circular and longitudinal, towards the anus.
If the food is fluid it enters the stomach six seconds after the beginning of the act, but If It is solid it takes much long e r, up to fifteen minutes, to pass down the esophagus.
In the stomach the food is thoroughly mixed by the series of contractions, three or four a minute, the contraction waves passing from the middle of the stomach to the pylorus. These tend to drive the food in the same direction, but the pylorus being closed, there is axial reflex, owing to which the food is well mixed. After a time – a bout a minute when water has been swallowed – the pylorus relaxes at each wave, allowing some of the stomach contents to enter the duodenum. Fat stays in the stomach longer than carbo hydrate, but all food leaves generally in three or four hours. In the small intestine the food continues to be moved by peristalsis, the latter controlled by the deep nerve plexus. The small intestine undergoes segmentation movements, the food contents being thoroughly mired The wall becomes constricted into a number of segments and then about five seconds later the constrictions disappear, there being another set exactly out of phase with the first. The large intestine undergoes infrequent powerful contractions, food having entered it. From the large intestine the food enters the rectum.
voluntary control –
soft – мягкий
mastication – перетирание
position – положение
root – корень
46. The digestive system: liver and stomach. Sources of energy
Liver, the pancreas and the kidneys are the organs primarily engaged in the intermediary metabolism of the materials resorbed from the gasro – intestinal tract and in the excretion of metabolic waste products Of these 3 organs the liver performs the most diverse functions. It acts as the receiving depot and distributing center for the majority of the products of intestinal digestion and plays a major role in the intermediary metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, proteins and purines.
It controls the concentration of cholesterol esters in the blood and utilizes the sterol in the formation of bile acid. The liver takes in the regulation of the blood volume and in water metabolism and distribution. Its secretion, the bile, is necessary for fat digestion
The liver is a site for the formation of the proteins of the blood plasma, especially for fibrinogen, and also forms heparin, also forms heparin, carbohydrate which prevents the clotting of the blood It has important detoxicating functions and guards the organism against toxins of in testinal origin as well as other harmful substances The liver in its detoxicating functions and manifold metabolic activities may well be соnsidered the most important gland of the body.
The normal position of the empty human stomach is not horizontal, as used to be thought before the development of rentgenology. This method of examination has revealed the stomach to be either somewhat J-shaped of comparable in outline to a reversed L. The majority of normal stomachs are J-shaped. In the J-shaped type the pylorus lies at a higher level than the lowest part of the greater curvature and the body of the stomach is nearly vertical.
The stomach docs not empty itself by gravity, but through the contraction of its muscular wall like any other part of the diges tive tube, of which it is merely a segment.