Грамматика для написания научных статей
Шрифт:
e.g. i.e. NB a.m .p.m. P.S. etc. A.D. et al.
Below are the lists of abbreviations and expressions that you may use while writing in English.
Task 9. Read the sentences paying attention to Latin abbreviations and expressions. Check yourself whether you understand/ remember their meanings.
1. The in vitro packaging system developed for recombinant DNA appears to bring the cloning of unenriched DNA.
2. Although knowledge of foreign languages is practically important, it is also valuable per se.
3. History knows several examples when countries were ruled by de facto kings.
4. Chemical processes usually flow in vivo quicker than in laboratory conditions.
5. Mastery of genre and styles conventions liberates the ego of a writer and provides him/her with the tools of self-expression.
6. You may find Errata in the section "Announcements" of the journal.
7. While some scholars argue that conceptual systems do not exist a priori, others think that social groups, within which individuals function, are determined by and interact with prior "systems."
8. To elaborate a new decision, the committee gathered for an ad hoc meeting.
9. For this trip, per diem expenses must not exceed $40.
10. Per capita income is an important economic category.
11. Minerals get their names from various sources; e.g., alexandrite was named for Alexander I of Russia.
Home assignment: Vocabulary in Use Units 2, 7.
Lesson 3. Articles
Do you always know whether to use a, an, the, or no article at all? Although there are rules to help you, there are also a lot of exceptions and a lot of fine distinctions to be made, so learning to use articles accurately takes a long time. However, to really master article usage, you should also read a great deal, notice how articles are used, and make notes.
Before we look in more detail at how the English article system works, it is worth checking which areas of the system you can use confidently and which you are less sure about. That will help you focus on the relevant section of the unit; you may not need to study all of the sections.
Below are two short tests of English article use, for you to assess how confident you are that you can get the answers right.
Decide in each case whether the underlined numbered space should be filled with THE, A, AN or ZERO (no article).
Test 1: New rules for Everest climbers
Expeditions on _(1)_ Mount Everest will be more closely monitored than before from _(2)_ next year, according to _(3)_ BBC. _(4)_ Nepalese officials say that for _(5)_ first time, _(6)_ government team will be located at _(7)_ base camp. They will monitor and help _(8)_ expedition teams, coordinate _(9)_ rescues and protect _(10)_ environment. _(11)_ change follows _(12)_ embarrassing incidents on _(13)_ slopes of _(14)_ world's tallest mountain, including _(15)_ fight between _(16)_ sherpas and _(17)_ mountaineers.
Purna Chandra Bhattarai, _(18)_ chief of _(19)_ tourism industry division that oversees _(20)_ mountaineering, told _(21)_ BBC: "There is _(22)_ need for _(23)_ permanent government mechanism at _(24)_ Everest base camp to regulate _(25) mountaineering activities. _(26)_Integrated Service Centre will also help _(27)_ climbers by offering them _(28)_ communication and _(29)_ safety-related services."
Mr Bhattarai says that, starting from _(30)_ next year's spring climbing season, _(31)_ team at _(32)_ base camp will represent _(33)_ government's administration on _(34)_ ground. It was getting difficult to regulate _(35)_ mountaineering activities from _(36)_ capital, Kathmandu.
Test 2: Bogeyman
_(1)_ bogeyman is _(2)_ imaginary being used by _(3)_ adults to frighten _(4)_ children into _(5)_ good behaviour. _(6)_ bogeyman has no specific appearance, and _(7)_ conceptions about him can vary drastically from _(8)_ household to household within _(9)_ same community. In many cases, he has no set appearance in _(10)_ mind of _(11)_ adult or child, but is simply _(12)_ non-specific embodiment of _(13)_ terror. _(14)_ P/parents may tell their children that if they misbehave, _(15)_bogeyman will get them. _(16) B/bogeymen may target _(17)_ specific mischief – for instance, _(18)_ bogeyman that punishes _(19)_ children who suck their thumbs – or _(20)_ general misbehaviour.
In _(21)_ many countries, _(22)_ fictitious scary man similar to _(23)_ bogeyman is portrayed as _(24)_ man with _(25)_ sack on his back who carries _(26)_ naughty children away. This is true for _(27)_ many Latin countries and _(28)_ Eastern Europe, as well as _(29)_ Haiti and some countries in _(30)_ Far East. In Spain, el hombre del saco is usually depicted as _(31)_ impossibly ugly and skinny old man who eats _(32)_ misbehaving children he collects. In Argentina, Chile and particularly in _(33)_ Southern and Austral Zones, he is mostly known as "El Viejo del Saco" ("_(34)_ old man with _(35)_ bag") who walks around _(36)_ neighbourhood every day around _(37)_ supper time.
A. Proper nouns
1. Proper nouns that fail into certain categories are very rarely accompanied by an article: people's names, cities and states, countries and continents, months and days of the week, streets, churches and religious buildings, mountains, parks.
2. Proper nouns that fall into the following categories must always be I accompanied by the definite article the: museums and art galleries, buildings, highways, seas and oceans, river, deserts, periods and events in history, bridges/ parts of the country.