Idiots are invincible
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This was a very brief reference to the potential effects of stress. Our next topic is personality. We all know people who rarely get stressed and others who get stressed by everything or are constantly stressed. Which category do you belong in?
Chapter 4: Stress and personality
It is more important to know what sort of person has a disease, rather than know what sort of disease a person has. – Hippocrates
ACCORDING TO Aaron Beck, anxious individuals often have unrealistic fears and fight against imaginary problems. Specifically, they tend to:
a) Overrate the possibility of something bad happening to them, focus on potential negative scenarios, and worry about things that could happen to them in the future (e.g., “what if an airplane crashes on my house?”).
b) Overestimate the significance of an event (e.g., “if I do not get into university, my parents won’t love me; if they do not love me, I am worthless”).
c) Underestimate their ability to deal with events (e.g., “everything is predestined; it’s written in the stars and I am a Pisces, what do you expect from a minnow – or a … sardine”).
d) Underrate the possibility of support from their social environment (e.g., “no will ever help me” I do not have any friends …”).
Are these types of thought patterns “nurtured” and acquired or are they the result of biologically determined personality traits that predispose people to think in a certain way?
The issue of nature versus nurture has not been resolved yet. However, experts believe that the influence of genes and environment is usually about 50-50.
Are there certain personality traits useful in dealing with stress? Are some people better equipped to deal with stress?
The answer is yes. Certain individuals are genetically privileged and can endure more stress. The personality traits believed to buffer stress include explanatory style, self-efficacy, psychological hardiness, locus of control, sensation seeking, autonomic nervous system responses, and Type-A behaviour.
Explanatory style
Explanatory style refers to the way we explain events that happen to us in life (Seligman, 1989). It consists of three dimensions: internal – external, stable – unstable, and global – specific.
When faced with a negative event, such as a failure, individuals with a pessimistic explanatory style consider it:
a) Personal. They attribute the poor outcome to internal causes (e.g., “it was all my fault”).
b) Pervasive. They tend to generalize, thinking it will affect all areas in their life (e.g., “I failed Math; therefore, I am a failure in everything”).
c) Permanent. They consider it unchangeable (e.g., “this is how things will be in the future”).
Such attributions result in chronic negative feelings and, often, in low self-esteem, melancholy, and depression.
On the contrary, people with an optimistic explanatory style facing a negative event:
a) Attribute it to external and unanticipated factors (e.g., “the exam was difficult”), and expect better outcomes over future events.
b) Consider their failure as specific and therefore confine it (e.g., “I may have failed in my efforts in this field, but I am doing well in others”).
c) Regard the failure as temporary (e.g., “I did not succeed this time, but I will next time”).
The results of the optimistic explanatory style are temporary negative feelings followed by decision-making, redefinition of goals, and planning of future actions.
According to researchers, people with an optimistic explanatory style cultivate positive expectations, have a good self-image, succeed in academic fields and in sales, maintain a positive outlook of life, employ problem-solving and choose approach rather than avoidance strategies, seek social support, and adopt healthier habits in relation to diet, rest, and physical exercise (Buchanan & Seligman, 1995).
In contrast, individuals with a pessimistic explanatory style are vulnerable to learned helplessness25 and depression, isolation and loneliness, and often suffer from social anxiety.
Here is a word of caution: in its extreme, over-optimism is also maladaptive. Excessive positive thinking of the type “everything will be okay” or “that is never going to happen to me” may lead to deficient preparation and produce negative results. A classic example of over-optimism can be drawn from the area of health. In line with the “above the average phenomenon,” among other attributes (e.g., intelligence, driving ability, looks, and … modesty), most people believe that their health is better than the average health of other people and that they are at less risk for diseases. As a result, they underestimate the probability of negative outcomes, and in turn, the importance of sound nutrition, physical activity, rest, etc. The results are all too familiar …
Self-efficacy
This concept refers to a high degree of faith in one’s own skills and an “I can make it”-type convictions. Much like optimism, self-efficacy has been shown to relate to lower adrenaline levels, less work stress, and better self-regulation (e.g., maintaining a healthy weight, following a fitness exercise program, and quitting smoking for good). It has also been shown to assist in successful treatment of depression, overall wellbeing, success in sports, and drug-free birthing (see Holden, 1991; Myers, 2004).
Psychological hardiness
Those who can be characterized as psychologically hardy tend to:
a) Consider change a normal condition, a challenge, and an opportunity for growth, rather than a threat. They choose stress and, instead of getting annoyed, foaming at the mouth and becoming aggressive, they usually interpret stressors as interesting events.
b) Believe that they have control over their life.
c) Commit to and actively engage with the task or the problem.